Trudy Gold
The Extraordinary Samuel Oppenheimer and Samson Wertheimer
Trudy Gold - The Extraordinary Samuel Oppenheimer and Samson Wertheimer
- Thank you very much, Julian. Thank you for sorting out my technology problems, which never, ever go away. Anyway, those of you who’ve been following my colleagues, William, David, and Patrick, will know that we’re all, in our own ways, approaching and skirting around that extraordinary issue of the European enlightenment, or better known as the Age of Reason. That notion that took hundreds of years to gestate that perhaps if we educated people to a certain level, not just education as we know it, cultivation, Bildung, we will be enabled to use reason, and we would create a much more harmonious world. Now, these are the ideas of the Age of Reason. And I think it’s important to also because William was discussing this yesterday. There is no linear path in history. If you look back into the past, and as William said very amusingly yesterday, you cannot predict the future just by looking at the past. We know that there are many contradictory movements around today, just as they were in history, but we don’t know yet which way society will develop. And it’s a very important factor this that we can look at the trends, but the problem is a further problem, because my task has always been to teach Jewish history within the context of the general cultural and historical backgrounds that we’ve been studying, and how to tell the story of this very tiny people, you know, we are a pinprick amongst the nations of the world. How are they going to react to the seismic events and examine and what we’ve been trying to do, and what I’m going to further do today is to look at how individual Jews and groups accommodate the modern world.
And just to reiterate, most historians date early modern history from 1492. It’s a lovely, convenient date. It’s the date, where, of course, Columbus bumps into the New World. It’s the beginnings of mercantilism. And also, the backdrop to that was the Renaissance, the fall of Constantinople, the invention of the printing press, which was as seismic in its day as the net is today. If you want to think about one of the forces that shapes our modern world today, it’s this machine that I’m talking to you on, because we haven’t yet psychologically worked out the ramifications of what this instant communication means. Certainly, in terms of lockdown University, it’s been wonderful. I found it incredibly enriching but we all know how complicated it is. And can you just imagine the impact of the printing press, the spread of knowledge? And of course, an area we’ve also touched on, the Reformation, the great clash, which of course, Charles V was at the centre of between Protestantism and Catholicism. So the area that I’m talking about now is really the beginning of the age of the Enlightened despots. These are characters like Frederick II, the King of Prussia. It’s like the beginnings of the change in the Habsburg Empire. And of course, I’ll be looking at Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II. They were despots, never forget that, they were authoritarian. But nevertheless, they saw themselves as creatures of the Enlightenment. And the question always was, and is, how on Earth do the Jews fit into all of this?
We’ve already discussed, and we’re going to discuss further today, how these new enlightened despots, who are very interested in the economic base of the states, how important this interrelated group of Jews, the court Jews, with their amazing networks, how useful they’re going to be from country to country to country, particularly in the German states and in Vienna, every emperor had his Hofjude. And if they were relatively enlightened, they allowed other Jews into Vienna or Berlin or wherever to allow them to live Jewish lives. But remember, it’s not through any kind of enlightenment about Jewry. On the contrary, they are useful to the state. Now, Patrick mentioned Voltaire. David mentioned Voltaire. But what about Voltaire and the Jews? And I think it’s probably best just to take a few minutes to talk about the great figure of the Enlightenment, and yet how he related to Jews. He wrote an article about them. It actually appeared again in the “Dictionary of Philosophy” in 1764, and obviously I’m paraphrasing: It’s certain that the Jewish nation is the most singular that the world has ever seen. And although in a political view, the most contemptible of all, yet in the eyes of philosopher worthy of consideration. And then he discusses the Jews that he knows off throughout the world, and remember, he is the symbol of the Enlightenment. In short, we find in them only an ignorant and barbarous people who have long united the most sordid avarice with the most detestable superstition, and the most invincible hatred for every people, by whom they are tolerated and enriched. Still, we ought not to burn them. Now, many philosophers and scholars have pointed out that, of course, Voltaire isn’t going to come too heavily against the Christians. So by attacking the Jews, the people of the Hebrew Bible, the people of the Old Testament, he has a softer role. But having said that, there was a interesting Jewish figure at the time, his name was Isaac de Pinto. And he replies to Voltaire.
Now, before I can do that, I need to give you a tiny background to Isaac de Pinto because his role will give you a notion of how Jewry in the West is beginning to be structured. And remember, we’re only looking at a few thousand people from city to city to city. The bulk of the Jews are in Eastern Europe or in the Ottoman Empire. His dates are 1717 to 1782. He is a Portuguese origin. He lived in Amsterdam. He came from an incredibly wealthy family. He was a merchant prince. He was a huge investor. He saw himself as both a scholar and a philosopher. He was interested in the Jews. And he published a lot. He published mainly in French, occasionally in Portuguese. Why did a man in Amsterdam publish in French? Because as I’m sure you all know French was the language of the Enlightenment. And he was one of the few Jews in the 18th century before Moses Mendelssohn, who was actually able to express himself in mainstream European thought, and was important enough for Voltaire to answer him. As a merchant banker, he was one of the main investors in the Dutch East India Company. And in fact, in 1750, he became president of the Dutch East India Company. He helped William IV of Orange by financing, in 1748, he financed one of his wars against the French. And in return, in return for really paying for the war, he asked William, to if you like, step down a little on some of the measures that made Jewish trade very difficult in Holland, and he also came up with a suggestion of sending the poorer Jews to Suriname.
Now this is a feature that I find time and time again, in Jewish history, that once a group finds itself settled, and they gradually, gradually find a certain amount of tolerance and acceptance, when another group comes in that’s poorer, more Jewish inverted comers, particularly Yiddish speaking, how do they react? They either try to make them as them or they send them on. It’s fascinating how many Eastern European Jews were sent on from Germany, from Paris, from London onto America in the huge wave of emigration out of Europe, out of Eastern Europe, 1881 to 1940. Over 40,000 were sent on by Anglo-Jews who felt that they were rocking the boat. Anyway, this is how Isaac de Pinto replies to Voltaire. He said, “Can any imputation be laid on a people as a whole? Jews have been scattered through so many nations. The Jews in London have very little resemblance to a Jew in Constantinople. A Portuguese Jew in Bordeaux and a German Jew in Metz appear two beings of a different nature.” And he goes on, he talks about the Jews in London, of course, the Jews of Amsterdam, who have now settled in London, Bevis Marks Synagogue, and how they’ve all shaved off their beards. They affect the the costumes of the English. The services are held with much decorum and though Samuel Pepys didn’t agree with them, and he’s illustrating that point we have become, in England, almost English. And he then goes on to say, he criticises Voltaire, “It is not sufficient to abstain from burning people with faggots. They may be burned with a pen. And this fire is so much more to be dreaded because it lasts for future generations.”
So he’s saying to Voltaire, what you have done is harmful. And then, listen to how he talks about his own people. “What can be expected from ignorant, savage, and the vulgar when the destruction of an unfortunate nation is determined? If these horrid prejudices are authorised by the greatest geniuses of the enlightened age, let him consult his reason and its art, and I am confident he will employ all his talents in recounting his errors.” He was showing a masterly way that the mean characteristics of certain Polish and German Jews are not to be laid to the charge of that ancient divine and sacred religion. So he’s saying, please, please, you are the greatest man of your age. Will you have a little more sympathy? And remember, we’re not all like the Polish and German Jews. And then Voltaire, to his credit, replies to de Pinto, “The lines you complain off are cruel and unjust. There are amongst you learned and respectable persons. Your letter is a sufficient evidence of this. I will take care to insert a cancel leaf in the new edition. When a man is in the wrong, he should make reparation for it and I was wrong in attributing to a whole nation the vices of some individuals. I shall tell you that there are many who cannot endure your laws and superstitions. They say that your nation has done much in every way to hurt itself, and so the human race. If you are a philosopher, as you seem to be, and understand superstition is the scourge of the Earth.” This was very much Voltaire’s argument. He looked at the superstitions in Christianity. He wanted people to turn to reason to the Age of Reason. “Superstition has caused so many Jews and Christians to be slaughtered. It is superstition that still sends you Jews to the stake amongst nations praiseworthy in other respects.” You know, it’s fascinating. He still can turn to nations who, the Inquisition, think of the Inquisition, which is rife in Portugal, and in Spain, and in the New World, still murdering people in the name of religion.
And, of course, the 30 Years’ War, when a third of the population of Germany died, but he’s saying, he’s saying they are still decent people even though they burned the Jews. “Perhaps I should provoke you to anger and you seem to be too worthy a man to deserve provocation. As you are a Jew, remain so but be a philosopher. That is my best wishes to you in our short life.” So basically, I wanted to make that point. Because I think it’s important to remember that even in the Enlightenment, which is seen by so many as a break with the past that we are moving into this wonderful age of toleration, not toleration any more, but liberalism, et cetera, that there were already problems for the Jews right at the beginning. And now I am going to turn to two of the most fascinating characters, I think, in Jewish history, and that Samuel Oppenheimer. Now Samuel Oppenheimer, his dates are 1630 to 1703. I’ve gone back a little. And I’m also in a minute going to be talking about his nephew, Wertheimer. Now Samuel Oppenheimer, again, was one of those characters who really walked the world. He came from a wealthy family, an incredibly well connected family, because I think I’ve already very much got this point over to you that you have these interconnected families of bankers, of merchants, who also have agents all over the known world, and therefore, they are incredibly useful. He himself being born in Frankfurt, he began his career in Heidelberg as purveyor to the elector, Karl Ludwig, and a tax collector for the Jewry of the Palatine. Important to remember that Jews were never ever taxed as individuals. They were taxed communally. And it was always up to the Jewish community to decide who would have to give what.
And in fact, this is one of the most positive aspects of the Jewish community that I see in history because it did teach us historically to look after each other. Look, it’s not perfect, but if you think, I can only talk about England really in this sphere. But if you think about organisations like Jewish Care, et cetera, there is this notion within the Jewish community, that those we’ve have make sure that those who don’t have so much are looked after. And I think this comes back to this kind of notion, and they would all have seen themselves as a nation, whether they saw themselves as a nation in exile is something that we can discuss later. Now, the Palatine, I’m linking him now into European history, those of you who love European history, the king was Charles Louis. He was also known as the Winter King. And his wife was Elizabeth Stuart, the sister of Charles I and brother of Rupert of The Rhine. And of course, those of you who love English history will know that Rupert of The Rhine was the great Cavalier who fought for his uncle, Charles I. So Samuel Oppenheimer then moves to Vienna, where, because he can be so useful to the emperor, he is given the right of unlimited residence and extraordinary trade privileges. This is very important. Because remember, we’re now moving, we are in the age of mercantilism. And what do these court Jews want? In return for financing the luxuries of the court, for financing the wars of the king, they wanted the monopoly on some important substances like pepper, like tobacco, et cetera, and this is where a lot of their wealth came from. And they are peculiarly in the position to be able to work these international trade routes because they have their connections all over the place.
If you think about the Dutch East and Dutch West India Company, who do you think the agents were in Madras in India? Who do you think the agents were in South Africa? Think of the route around the Cape. It was Jews who were contacts, they were agents of the various court Jews. Anyway, in 1670, there was an appalling incident in Vienna, which also gives you a notion of the Janus-faced of this period, because in 1670, the Jews were expelled from Vienna. Last time, I talked about that terrible expulsion from Vienna in 1421. Only a few had crept back, but it’s the centre of an empire and it’s a place where the wealthy want to be. Now the Emperor at the time, Leopold I, he had an absolutely fanatical Catholic wife called Margarita Teresa. Think of the period. It’s the end, look, we’ve been through the 30 Years’ War, which was if you think about the date 1618 to 1648, the fighting between Catholicism and Protestantism, and any other kind of heresy, and fanatical Catholics, the Jews are the arch-heretics. She was completely fixated. Their firstborn son died, she blamed the Jews. There was a fire in the Neue wing of the Hofburg, she blamed the Jews. And she was egged on by the Bishop of Nitra, a man called Leopold Carl von Kollonitsch, who I’m going to talk about again. Now and also a very influential Capuchin the Capuchins, a fanatical order of monks, very much involved in the Counter Reformation, later Bishop of Vienna, and also the Emperor’s confessor, a Jesuit called Philippe Muller. So around the court, you have a cadre of incredibly fanatical Catholics.
And you can imagine because what we know of Samuel Oppenheimer, look how elegant he is, we also know that he was arrogant. We also know that he revelled in the luxury of his position. And he must have aroused an incredible amount of envy. And I think I’ve also illustrated, in my description of Voltaire, of Voltaire’s statement, the negative image of the Jew of Christ-killer is still important. And I think it’s that more than anything else, plus, of course, and I think it’s terribly important to emphasise, it’s not just the Christ-killer. It’s the fact that Christianity, Catholicism pushed the Jews out of many trades or professions. So consequently, they are associated with money lending, with merchanting, and the poorer ones, of course, are peddlers and small merchants. So the association of the Jew with money and it’s distasteful. You know, even Voltaire, the great Voltaire, and so many other writers, “Well, Jews are sordid and avaricious.” Well, what other? To start with, that’s a terrible calumny. But on the other hand, what other occupations could they’ve been involved in? So it’s very important to remember all of this. So as a result, the Jews of Vienna had to get out. And Jews of Lower Austria had to leave by Easter 1671. Now, you’re not talking about that many families. But the point is, the Jews have to get out. And what is interesting, the 50 wealthiest families were actually invited into Berlin by Friedrich Wilhelm, more about him at the end of this session. And as a response to that, they’re going to be incredibly useful for the Prussian state.
And in fact, later on, the Bishop Kollonitsch, is later going to become treasurer of the Habsburg Empire, and he’s a terrible enemy of Samuel Oppenheimer. Anyway, Samuel Oppenheimer, he’s needed. The point is if you think of the scope of the Habsburg Empire, and we will be sorting out some maps for you in my next presentation, just think about the scope of it now. Just think how many lands it’s beginning to encompass and it’s going to get even more. The further east you go, the more primitive. Who is collecting the taxes? Who is sorting out trade? Who on Earth can finance the wars? So because he is needed, he petitions, and the Emperor allows him to resettle in Vienna in 1676. And he is the first Jew to be granted the right to resettle, and he was a proud man. He was allowed to bring into the city 100 people, his retinue. 100 people came with him, his scribes, his agents, and also those who helped with charity. He’s a huge philanthropic figure and he becomes the core. He’s at the centre of the core of a reestablished community. This is really the beginning of the reestablishment of the community in Vienna, which of course, in the next couple of months, we’re going to take all the way through, I think every one of my colleagues have talked about the turn of the century in Vienna, which was probably the most exciting place to be.
And yet, it was, again, I’m going to use the phrase, the Janus-faced, the Empire is Janus-faced. So this man who is already the big financier of the empire, he is now allowed to settle. He applies, actually, to be allowed to erect a synagogue, that’s turned down, but he is allowed to hold services in his home. Now, at the time now, why did the Emperor have him back? Well, it’s obvious, he becomes the Imperial War purveyor. There’s war in between 1673 and 1679, war with the French. It is Oppenheimer who organises the consortium to pay for the wars against the French. Now think about the armies. The army has to be clothed. The army has to be fed. Horses have to be fed. You have to work out lines of communication. And what we know about Samuel Oppenheimer, he was a man of huge organisational talents. He has a network of contractors, because if you’re supplying armies on the move, you need contractors and agents throughout the empire. Many of his agents were court Jews in their own right, in the little principalities. So basically, if you like, it’s almost a spider’s web. Well, that’s certainly how the enemies of the Jews would see it. This spider’s web of court Jews who could supply armies, who, if you like, had the fortunes of an empire in their pockets. The reality was, he was there because he was useful to the Emperor.
Also, the other point to illustrate with him, many of his important contacts were family. He and his wife had nine children, what do you think happened to the children? I began to mention, Daniel Itzig to you in Berlin. Daniel Itzig, don’t forget, he had 13 children, and he was the wealthiest Jew in Berlin. How do they establish themselves? Who do they marry? It’s a time of completely arranged marriages. We know that he had a huge secretariat, and he has placed secretaries with all the agents. So he’s also got an incredible intelligence network, I suppose of all the court Jews, was he a court Jew, the one who had the greatest network of all was the Rothschild family. Now, we could debate whether in fact they were court Jews, they went way beyond that. Anyway, and we know that he also raised money for the army, not just from Jewish sources, but also from Christian sources, because the Christians trust, ironically, they trusted the safety of their money with him. Now, then of course, we come to another war, Louis XIV invades the Paletine. And again, Oppenheimer is called upon to give assistance. Eugene of Savoy really, who is one of the great heroes of the time, he really, really rated this man. And in fact, can we have a look at Charles Louis? Thank you, yes, he was one of the men who worked with, who basically, he worked for, he was a great soldier. Now, by 1688, we’re going to see that he’s in great debt. But I’ve jumped on, because going back, the most important war he’s going to be involved in is the war with the Turk. And the war with the Turk is something that’s quite, it’s going to be, oh, God, so many, many, many things to talk about it.
The Turkish army arrived at the gates of Vienna in 1683. And as William told you yesterday, if they hadn’t been defeated, then Islam would have spread all over the European continent. And it’s going to be the forces of Christendom that are going to hold at Vienna. Can we go on and have a look at the Siege of Vienna, please, Judi? Yes, this is a depiction of the Siege of Vienna. Can you imagine how frightening it must have been with the Turkish army outside the walls of Vienna? Starving the city out, horror. The emperor had actually fled to escape the Turkish army. But he’d approved the contract with Oppenheimer beforehand. Oppenheimer actually said to him, I can pay for the whole thing. And he actually fulfils the contract during the Siege of Vienna. And he took on all the logistical problems, the man was a genius. He’s having to pay the Emperor’s army. That means salaries for all the troops. He’s also having to find livestock for the cattle. If you just think about what, and fodder for the animals. He also took it upon himself to erect hospitals for the wounded. And during all of this, he’s conducting business throughout the empire. But his major coup was the building, he built the Danube fleet which led to the relief of Budapest. Back in 1526, at the Battle of the Mohacs, Hungary became part of the Turkish, much of Hungary became part of the Turkish Empire.
After the Siege of Vienna, it’s Christianized again. What happened to the Jews is a fascinating story because many of them actually preferred to live under the Turks. Now, so what an irony of history. It was actually the brilliance of a court Jew that led really to saving, yeah, I’m going to go that far. Yes, it was the armies. Of course, it was the armies but it was the brilliance of this particular individual that really enabled the army to happen. And now we come to the tragedy of the court Jew. As I said, in 1688, he was again called on over the Palatinate because Louis XIV, flexing his mettle, another extraordinary enlightened despot. You are living in a time of incredibly interesting individuals. However, by this time, there is so much debt owing to him, and remember, he’s got an enemy, Bishop Kollonitsch. Should we see Bishop Kollonitsch, please? I think we’re going to have a look at a picture of the Emperor Leopold. Can we go back to Leopold? So let’s have a look at him. There is the Emperor Leopold. You see that Habsburg jaw? Do you remember yesterday, William told you how after Charles V abdicated, he divided his empire between his son Philip in Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and his brother Ferdinand, and this is his brother’s lineage now but you can see that prominent Habsburg jaw. And now let’s look at this Bishop, this fanatical Catholic. By the way, there is a statue to him in Vienna today, so fascinating how history, you know, the issue of statues, but we won’t go into that now. Anyway, what happens is his enemy, Bishop Kollonitsch accuses him, falsely accusing him of murder. And he is forced to buy his freedom for 500,000 florins.
Now, the war’s over. The Turks have been defeated. The city is safe. And as William said to you yesterday, there were many, on an interesting level, there were many benefits. It said that the croissant, that’s when it entered into Europe, you know, the crescent-shaped pastries, and of course, the coffee. So basically, Vienna’s getting itself back to normal. There is a Christian merchant class. The Jesuits are incredibly strong. And in 1700, the mob, whipped up by a very, very, very fanatical clergy, he’s got this wonderful mansion. It’s beautiful, it’s a palace. He has guards outside, that they actually plunder his mansion. And he’s destroyed. He’s more or less bankrupt. And he dies in 1703, the state refuses to honour the debts to his heir, and he was bankrupt. The family were bankrupt. They’re going to come back. But the point I’m making, this is the role of the court Jew. This is the instability of the court Jew. Last time I spoke to you, I talked about you know, the ultimate example. So these individuals, he was proud, he was vain, he was brilliant in so many ways. And I should also mention, he was an incredible philanthropist. He helped so many Jews. But on the other hand, he lived at the mercy of the people around him. He’s had a message from Jewish history.
However, if we could come on to the next slide, please, Judi. And on Sunday, we’re going to have an extraordinary lecture on the Wertheimer portraits, which are in the Tate. And here you see the famous Samson Wertheimer. His dates are 1658 to 1724. He is the nephew of Oppenheimer, and they worked together a lot. He’d been born in Worms, which of course, was in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the son of a man called Josel Wertheimer, 1626 to 1713, very interesting. Now, he had a very strong Jewish education. He was educated at Yeshiva in Worms and in Frankfurt. So this is a man who is incredibly wealthy, but he’s got a very strong Jewish education. As a young man, he comes to Vienna to work with his uncle Samuel, and he shared his privilege residence status. And when his uncle was away, he actually represented him at the court, both with Leopold and with his son, so he’s a very important individual. He actually secured the confidence of Leopold I, who was a very complicated man. He was quite weak in terms of his wife, but he was not the fanatic that his wife was. And he actually presented a portrait of himself to Wertheimer, and also to his son. And he followed, he gave him a gift of 1000 ducats because of the services that the Wertheimers were giving to the crown. He was instrumental. And why did he get that present? Because he was instrumental in negotiating with the King of Poland. A million florins on the occasion of a marriage to his brother in law to Charles Philip. This is the interrelated marriages of the kings and princes of Europe. Now the King of Poland, marrying into the Habsburg family, he needs to give a big dowry.
Who is the person who is negotiating the dowry? It’s Wertheimer, and in the Spanish War of Succession, he united, that was when Oppenheimer was still around, again, they procured all the money for that. And once Oppenheimer had died, it’s Wertheimer who is now maintaining the credit of the Habsburg state. William told you that it was always a problem, the credit of the state, and it’s these court Jews who are really in charge of creating new sources of income. And I want to mention that, interesting, they are on the same side as the British. Can we have a look at the next slide? Because of course, this is the Battle of Blenheim. By this time, he is the official court factor. And he is given privileges for over 20 years. He’s given freedom of religious, of worship. He’s allowed to worship in his home. He has immunity from taxation. And when Joseph I succeeded his father, he maintains the privileges. So he is the financier and creator of the state. And, of course, he is going to finance Prince Eugene of Savoy, who is the field marshal of the Habsburgs, and the army partner of a man called the Duke of Marlborough. Now, the Duke of Marlborough, those of you who love English history, will know that he is a Spencer and Winston Churchill was actually born in his castle. Who was he? The Duke of Marlborough was John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, and it’s from the Spencer-Churchill’s that we see perhaps their greatest heir was, of course, Winston Churchill. And it is Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy that get all the credit for the Battle of Blenheim.
But I’m going to give you a little side issue because Marlborough had his own court Jew, an incredibly interesting character called Sir Solomon de Medina, knighted, you know, the first Jew to ever be knighted in England. His dates are 1650, was born in Bordeaux, and he dies in Amsterdam in 1730. He comes to England with William III, his army contractor. Think about it. William III, 1688, he becomes King of England, very, very important character. There were a lot of Jews with him in his train because they were his financiers back in Holland. In 1702, de Medina goes back to Amsterdam. And from then on, his son acts for him in London. He was the man who during the War of Spanish Succession, the Battle of Blenheim, was part of that, he accompanied Marlborough on all his campaigns, advanced him funds and provided for the troops. So he’s doing for the British, what Wertheimer, who of course, he knew very well is doing for their allies, the Austrians. And he also established this incredible system of expresses which outstripped the government. Just as later on, the Rothschilds were going to have the best intelligence service in Europe. Well, de Medina does it for Marlborough because information is power, is strength. And, of course, he made sure that his agents all over the place linked up, of course, with Wertheimer in possession of news before it even reached the government. In fact, in 1711, once the war has calmed down, Marlborough was attacked in parliament for giving Solomon de Medina an annual payment of 6,000 pounds. And Marlborough actually replied to Parliament, it was for all the trustworthy information that he received from Medina. And as I said, he was the first Jew to be knighted. More about him at another time. And we know that the king came to dine with Medina. So basically, I want you to understand the extraordinary network of these individuals, but remember they’re way away from the majority of Jews at the time.
So going back to Wertheimer, he is officially the court factor. He maintains his position. Eugene of Savoy completely rates him. He thinks he’s absolutely extraordinary. He made huge loans to the Habsburg government. In fact, you know, without these characters, what would have happened, would the Empire have disintegrated? That would make a lovely PhD thesis. And but Samuel Wertheimer was much more than the Hofjude. He was designated by the Jews of Hungary the Landesrabbiner. He’s the spiritual head of the Jewish community in Hungary. And this title was actually endorsed by Charles VI. And according to his relative, Abraham Levy, he was called the Judenkaiser. So he’s not just the Hofjude. He’s also a very important religious figure. And we know that just like his uncle, we know that 10 Imperial soldiers stood as sentinels before his own home. He had many palaces, beautiful gardens, estates throughout the empire, throughout the German lands in Frankfurt, in Worms. He established schools. He funded Yeshiva. He was a huge philanthropist. Whenever Jews were in trouble, and remember, the majority of Jews at this period are ghettoised, they are poor. He also gave money to the Jews living in Israel. But alien Jews were not allowed to remain overnight in Vienna. These are people who would come into the city for trade. They weren’t allowed to stay the night, keep the numbers down. And it was Wertheimer who would decide whether they could come in or not. He continued his religious studies to the end. We know that he gave many derashas in the synagogue. Remember, they don’t have a state synagogue.
So the synagogue is in his house. He was a very competent Talmudist. He gave many, you see, it was the honour, if somebody died, he gave their family great honour if he would get the oration at the funeral. He did that for many distinguished rabbis. He was the head of the beit din and always called on for any religious disputes. Now this is from Rabbi Yair Bacharach, who was a descendant of the Maharal of Prague. We’ll be talking about that when we look at Prague later on this term, because of course, Prague is in the Habsburg Empire. Now he was a halakhic master. He said that Wertheimer, since the days of Rav Ashi of the Talmud, there was no one who possessed Torah and secular greatness in one man, as in a Wertheimer. Well, how seriously can we take this? He is the, after all, he is the most powerful man in the Jewish world. But nevertheless, we do know that he’s a great philanthropist. And we also know that he was a very learned Jew. Now, Moses Perls, Wertheimer’s secretary, calls him a Rabbi of great congregation within Israel. In some of the texts, he’s called the Rabbi of Prague and Bohemia. He’s even described in others as the Prince of the Holy Land. And we also know that he contributed to the printing of many religious works. He had his son in law, Moses Kann, bore the major part of the printing of the Babylonian Talmud in Frankfurt.
So he’s trying very hard to do everything he can for his people. And, of course, he had many children, and they connected with many of the most prominent families in Austria and in the German lands. For example, his eldest son, Wolf, married a daughter of Emmanuel Oppenheimer. And so there’s this incredible network of court Jews. He died in Vienna in 1724, surrounded by his family, and his son becomes the new court factor. And the problem was that he had a lot of trouble reclaiming debts from the Empire, but the Elector, Maximilian of Bavaria, liquidated his debts because when the Emperor wouldn’t, and there are foundations in Jerusalem, and in Vienna, which still keep alive his name as the great benefactor. His second son was married into the Lehmann Berend’s family. They were the court Jews of Hanover. So how can we sum up these characters? They were marvellous in their own time. They always in the end fell or their sons fell. But at that particular stage, I suppose that is what else could a Jew do? So it’s a complicated story that I’m printing for you now. And it’s really up to you to make your minds up. But now, I really do need to flit over to Germany, because I need to pull some threads together. And if I don’t have enough time today, because this is an area that we must really go quite slowly, then I will take a little time on Thursday, where I’m going to be talking about the strange case of Eisenmenger. But because I am running a little out of time, because I want, if you’d like, to take us back to a man that I’ve already begun to talk about, Daniel Itzig. Now, why am I talking about that? Because this is where it all comes full circle for us. Now, in 1670, you will recall I said a few minutes ago, that the King of Prussia invited the Jews in those 50 wealthy families. And by the time you get to the reign of Frederick II, remember, he is Frederick the Great. He is a merchant prince.
He wants to make Prussia the most important mercantile state in Europe. He has a very strong army. He also sees himself as a man of the Enlightenment, but he is an absolutist as well. Yes, there are reforms of the judiciary. Yes, there are a few social reforms. But he is a ruler. So please don’t think in terms of liberalism and democracy or anything like that. But he understands the importance of wealthy Jews. And I already mentioned Daniel Itzig to you because he was the richest Jew in Prussia. If you remember, he’s born in 1723 and he has 13 children, and his children are going to marry, again, into this incredible network. Now, it’s Daniel Itzig who manages to, he’s really the prime mover behind the charter of Frederick II which allows Jews to live in Berlin as of right if they are useful to the state. So consequently, you have a group of very, very wealthy Jewish families and I’ve already mentioned their daughters and their wives. Because this is the fascinating phenomenon of what is called and I know a lot of feminists find this a rather nasty term, sell-on Jewesses. What they really are, the wives and daughters, very usually, very, very intelligent, well-educated women who host these very glittering salons.
And of course, it’s to one of these salons that Moses Mendelssohn comes. Moses Mendelssohn, because of though I lectured on him over a year ago, I realised from the questions that some of you don’t know enough about him, may I suggest that you read “The Pity of It All” by Amos Elon. It’s terribly important and a brilliant book. So Moses Mendelssohn, whose dates are and I think we have a picture of him, don’t we, Judi? There he is, the great Moses Mendelssohn. His dates are 1729 to 1786. In fact, I’m going to tell you a personal story because he’s so controversial. A friend of mine once phoned me because her daughter was studying at Carmel College. She was studying Jewish history and she was studying religious studies. The rabbi who taught her religious studies told her that Moses Mendelssohn was a traitor to his people. The Jewish historian said he was absolutely important in understanding Jewish history, okay? So that’s the man we’re talking about. And he comes, he was born in the ghetto. He again, was one of these brilliant young men and he comes to Berlin to become a tutor to children and silk merchants, why? Because they are specially protected under the charter of Frederick II. Frederick II wants to keep the numbers down. No Jew could marry and bring their family into Berlin because he wants to keep the numbers down. But he does allow Jews into more trades than they had before. Because this is in the interest of the state. This is not tolerance. This is not even loving. It’s not loving the Jews. This is the interest of the state. But Moses Mendelssohn, who was steeped in Torah and Talmud, he’s called that on.
He’s evidently got an incredibly pleasant manner, very clever, very sparky, very witty, and he becomes a feature in many of these salons. Now who comes to the salons? Think of the court. Think of these bright young things who are were playing around with ideas. And they like to come to the homes of the wealthy Jews who no longer are dressed in ghetto garb, and who are beginning to speak German. And he begins to become aware of the knowledge of the European Enlightenment. There’s a statement in the Talmud, never forget, there is wisdom amongst the Gentiles, but there is no Torah. I often mention this to you, what may a Jew study? Well, he learned perfect German. He studied the language, he studied the knowledge of Greece and Rome, and he began to write philosophical treatise. He even, he does so well, he becomes known as the Jewish Socrates. Look, I’m shorthanding this, I could spend an hour talking about Moses Mendelssohn. But I know a lot of you know a lot about him already. As I said, he falls in love with the Age of Reason. He believes that he can be a Jew and a member of European society. He’s not a political reformer. But he did believe that you should be a Jew at home and a man in society. He writes a treatise which wins first prize in the Berlin Academy. Frederick II is not too happy about all of this, but he goes along with it. The philosopher Kant is in second place. He is known, as I said, as the Jewish Socrates. He’s challenged by a man called Lavater, a pastor. How is it that you, you know, one of the cleverest figures in Germany, why are you still a Jew? And he says something very interesting. He says, “If I meet a Confucian, do I have to convert him?” The whole point is, are you a moral person?
Do you lead a moral life? I happen to come from the path of the Jews. And I will remain on that path, and he kept kosher. He was Torah true. But he looked at the Jews in the ghetto, and he wanted the best for them to raise them up. So what he does is he begins to translate the Bible into German but using Hebrew letters. He wants them to speak German. He believes you could walk both worlds, and he pulls it off in his time. But it’s what happens after his death that’s interesting. He has many children. He also has a great disciple, David Friedlander, who I mentioned to you, may we see his face please, Judi? There’s David Friedlaender. His dates are 1750 to 1834. He was married to one of the daughters of David Itzig, the Great Court Jew of Prussia. She had two sisters who I mentioned to you last time, Fanny von Arnstein and Caecilie von Eskeles. So, David Friedlaender is a great disciple of Moses Mendelssohn. He was the founder with his brother in law, Isaac Daniel Itzig, of the Jewish Free School in Berlin. It was his family who’d actually employed Moses Mendelssohn in his silk factory. He was his friend, he was his pupil, and he sees himself as his intellectual successor. He tried to modernise Judaism. He has a very important position in the outside world. He’s very wealthy. He was the assessor at the Royal College of manufacturers and commerce in Berlin. He was the first Jew to sit on the municipal council. He was patron of both the arts, the sciences.
He was a friend of the Humboldt brothers, think of the University of Berlin. He is part of that set. But in what he does with the Jewish Free School, he begins to want modern subjects taught. He has the time to write textbooks. He translates the prayer book into German. He’s desperate that Jews be allowed to enter Christian circles. And then, he issues a proposal to a leading Protestant in Berlin. It’s an open letter. It’s today called the Dry Baptism. He suggested that Jews join the Lutheran church on the basis of shared moral values if they were not required to believe in the divinity of Jesus and could evade certain Christian rituals. He argued that the mosaic ritual was now obsolete. He wanted the establishment of a confederation of church and synagogue. Now, of course, this is rejected by both Jews and Christians. The great Jewish historian Graetz called him an ape. But I thought I’d better bring this up because by the second generation, every one of Itzig’s grandchildren, great grandchildren converted to Christianity. How did it happen? Well, there was pressure in the outside world as well, because of course, it ties in with the Emancipation process. But I think it’s best summed up in a letter that Abraham Mendelssohn, who was the son of Moses Mendelssohn, wrote to his children when he had them baptised, he said this, “Christianity is the religion of the civilised. That’s why I have converted you.” You see, Moses Mendelssohn’s time and in the time of his wife, none of them converted. But after his death, all but one of Moses Mendelssohn’s children converted, and I said, the majority of Daniel Itzig’s, they fell in love with Berlin. They fell in love with the upper echelons of German society. So basically, that’s the story. There’s more to say on it. But let me have a look at the questions. I’m only going to take a few tonight because we’ve got a very important lecture at 7:00. Haven’t we, Judi?
Q&A and Comments:
Q: Oh, this is from Peter Breece. How nice to hear you speak of Bildung. Why do we get so little of this in modern British education? Can you comment?
A: Oh, please don’t get me talking about education. It’s one of, I’m driving you all crazy. I totally agree with you. It’s like, and William shares this opinion with me. And he’s one of the greatest educators I have ever known. It’s like we need to sit down with a piece of paper.
Q: Francis, is this programme going to be about Oppenheimer, Wertheimer?
A: Yes, but I had to introduce it. One of the issues, Francis, that when I’m teaching, because Jewish history is all over the place, I try and centre it for you.
I was always taught that the Dutch East India Company will not employ Jews. Jill, that’s misinformation. In fact, 40% of the stock holders were Jewish. I always was surprised that Voltaire’s “Zadig” has the protagonist as the righteous guy who falls in love. In “Zadig”, Almona is in the word for widow and Caleb is the Hebrew word Kaleb meaning dog, could never figure it out. I’m not sure about that, Hindi, it’s a very, very interesting, yeah, I’m not sure about that. Yeah, Voltaire is problematic.
Q: What do you mean Jews were sent on by successful?
A: What I meant was you’ve got the successful, interconnected Jewish families. The bulk of Jews living in Eastern Europe were dirt poor. Tzedakah is our cornerstone. Yes, exactly, exactly. You see, I think the problem with these Jews who fell in love with Germany, because the Jews were seen as downgraded by so many people they wanted to be part of, they forgot the importance and the beauty of their own heritage. You know, the word in Chinese for crisis is represented by two figures, danger and opportunity. That’s the path of the Jew in the modern world. There are incredible opportunities. And of course, this is all going to coincide with the French Revolution, Emancipation, the Jews of Prussia are finally emancipated in 1812. We’re going to see a lot, and in the Habsburg Empire, we’re going to see how it finally happens there. But it’s in these years, when the Jews, they fall in love with European society. You’re not going to have the same problem in eastern Hungary. You’re not going to have the same problem in Transylvania, or in Poland. It’s when they think this, when we think there’s something that the outside world has that we want badly, what we have to ask ourselves, how much of our own heritage are we prepared to give up? That incredible statement, be a Jew at home and a man in society, can you walk both worlds? And I don’t think it’s ever really been solved. I think that’s what we all try and do most of the time. If Jews help finance the war, were they even paid by the country or what do you think?
Well, this is interesting. This is from Mickey, the House of Pinto was originally built in 1605 as a double house. Facade was united after 1680, almost demolished during World War II, library till 2012, now offices and community hall. Thank you very much for that information. Sorry about my hand. Sorry, we didn’t do some question.
Q: How do we decide who is representative of the Enlightenment?
A: Universities were run by religious institutions intended to ignore and deny the influence of atheists. Modern scholars like Alan Kors also and Philipp Blom challenged that Voltaire and Rousseau were the most representative. They were considered with suspicion. Yes, yes, thank you very much for that, Peter. The point is that Voltaire was admired by so many characters and think of the encyclopaedias movement. Well, I’m trying to do something quite difficult. I’m trying to balance the story of the Jews within the story of Europe.
Yes, Jack, that’s exactly what I’m referring to. I love the term enlightened despot, says Paula, like military intelligence.
This is from Pamela, I think the Ottomans were less bad to the Jews and Christians. Perhaps the Jews considered themselves European, but they might have survived better today if they all will be wearing burkas, Pamela.
Q: Could someone with tech skills provide us with a family tree?
A: The problem I have, Paul, if you get any of the books on these families, you will see a family tree at the back but it’s much too small, even for my eyes. Oh, yes, yes, Robert, you’re right. The one man was hanging for sacking Oppenheimer’s house, but that’s not the point. The point is, that’s not the point. The point is it shows just how nebulous their existence was.
Q: When we say these prominent Jews were wealthy, how does it translate into today’s money?
A: Well, we know that Daniel Itzig was the richest person in Prussia apart from the King, and so we’re talking about vast sums of wealth. Monty Golden, Jews and trade, the US is becoming increasingly worried about the growing relationship between Israel and China. It’s about shifting alliances and power conflicts. Israel should be worried. The US raises a lot of money for Israel, does China, be wary of Chinese Trojan horse.
Monty, China and the Jews is a fascinating subject. China and Israel is a fascinating… Is a fascinating subject. I’m not going to talk politics because I do not consider myself enough of a political scientist. But I taught in China for many, many years. And all I can tell you, and I believe this to be really true because I experienced it. The universities, they’re fascinated by Jews, because they think our civilization is almost as long as theirs. And comments like, you know, they love what they perceive as our love of learning. So that’s the kind of issue. Yes, Glenn Tarsel, is Oxford well worth visiting?
This is from Michael, from yesterday’s lecture and Trudy today, it’s very obvious to me that when Judeans become refugees, they have to leave everything and if they’re lucky, they get up with their clothes, and possibly live in Israel, if you want your descendants to inherit. Michael and Ellie are both very much giving a very strong plug for Zionism. So who is the Duke of Marlborough? It’s the War of the Spanish Succession. The French, of course. Do you remember what William said? It’s always the French, the Germans, the French, the British and the French. Now that our Israeli team, Michael and Ellie, are very much saying an argument that is going to arise in the 19th century, and Vienna is going to be the centre of it. Dr. Hartzell, remember? Lived in Vienna. Can you explain the mechanics of Jewish bankers in court?
Q: How did they finance the loans?
A: They were traders, they were merchants, and they borrowed from each other.
Q: Ah, this is interesting from Dennis and I don’t know the answer: Where the atomic physicists J. Robert Oppenheimer or the South African Sir Ernest Oppenheimer direct descendants?
A: I don’t know. I honestly don’t know. They would be named from the towns they came from.
Q: Trudy, this is Marilyn. I’m going to play devil’s advocate, Jews that lived peacefully under Muslim rule in Spain. Do you not think that Vienna would fall into the Turks, the Jews would have been better off?
A: Oh, Marilyn, the ifs and buts of history that people write books about today. I do not know the answer because I don’t know what other forces would have been at work. Remember, Jews living in Muslim Spain, it was a period of great peace and enlightenment. The minute it became more fanatical, times became much harsher. That’s why I think Jewish history is so fascinating. It touches everybody else’s history. And it’s how the Jews react to it. And also, I think too, it’s something I’ve talked to you about before. We are, at our best, we change the world. I mean that. If you think of the great modern movements for change, we become very acute observers of the world.
Q: Where were they getting the money from to learn?
A: From merchanting, basically.
Q: Do the descendants of the Wertheimers own the famous perfume brand?
A: Adrian, I believe they do.
This is from Ellie, Bildung education has sadly disintegrated in America. It’s the most important underpinning of a solid democratic society. You know, Ellie, isn’t it fascinating there isn’t an English word for Bildung? As my German-speaking friends shout at me, it’s education, it’s cultivation. It’s a whole way of being and thinking. Rochelle, Ḥalab is also Hebrew for Aleppo in Syria. Thank you for that. It was taught in my childhood. It was Jan Sobieski, the Polish king. Yeah, it was his, they were fighting, but who paid for it? Who relieved the siege of Budapest?
So yeah, of course, he was the hero. But that’s another kind of hero. I wonder, I wonder if they even mentioned Wertheimer and Oppenheimer, Pauline. In Zurich, I lived on Richard-Wagner-Strasse ironically, it backed on to Lavater Street where many of the Jewish institutions were based. Don’t forget also, Ellie, that it was Lessing, the great figure of the Enlightenment, he wrote “Nathan the Wise” based on Moses Mendelssohn. His first play, “The Jews”, he wrote when he was quite young, in 1743 I think, he hadn’t met Mendelssohn. And it fails on the Berlin stage, because no one could imagine a Jew was a hero.
Q: What do we know today about the descendants of converted Jews?
A: That’s such a big question, Barbara, because something like a third of the Jews of Berlin converted. What we do know is that the Nazis, you had to prove you had no Jewish blood before 1850. I love the term pinprick to describe the Jews amongst the nations. So more about the Oppenheimer family. Listen, if any of you have really wonderful questions, get researching, we are sort of like a family. The Jews didn’t necessarily fall in love with the Christian world. Conversion was the only route of advancing in their procession of society at large, i.e., recent times. Look, when you get to people like , of course he doesn’t fall in love with the Christian world. But he falls in love with modernity. And if he wants the Opera House, he’s got no choice because in Catholic Vienna, it was still a problem. Yes, was Stephen Wertheimer a relation? Rochelle, you’re going to have to do some research for me.
Oh, Estelle’s telling me not to put my hand in front of my mouth, sorry.
Why, this is a nice question. This is probably naive but it was Jewish money that was financing the throne, why didn’t they cut off the mighty Emperor’s… Pogrom, horror, you know, that’s a people without power. You know, when he talks a lot about influences, it’s interesting. Wertheimer and Oppenheimer had huge influence, particularly amongst their own people. And at one time, they had amongst the court. And what about the terrible case of Julius Oppenheimer? Most powerful man in the land after the king, then what happened to him? We have to work out our own destiny, don’t we?
All right, there’s this is from Aviva. There’s an original Wertheimer synagogue private home in Eisenstadt, Austria. Thank you, I think that’s all the questions. And don’t forget that tonight, am I correct, Judi, at 7:00? That there’s going to be a lecture by Jeremy?
Yes, Trudy.
Anyway, as usual, thank you for sorting out my slides. So I wish you all good evening and see you all hopefully at 7:00, take care.
[Judi] Thank you, Trudy. Thank you, everybody, bye bye.
[Trudy] Thank you.